Large System

It is impossible to know how minicomputers and mainframes are related to one another. The difference lies in their processing ability and the capacity of their primary storage. Microcomputers are the smallest, with a primary storage range of 4 to 64 K bytes, as well as the slowest, while minicomputers have a primary storage range 16 to 512 K bytes and greater processing speed. Mainframes are the fastest and can have over 1 M bytes in primary storage. They are commonly used in time sharing systems.

In a time sharing system, many companies log on to the same computer via telephone lines. To do this, a modem should be installed. A modem enables a computer to transmit data over telephone lines. A telephone line used only for data communication is called distributed data processing. The opposite concept – a centrally located computer system – is called centralized data processing.

With distributed data processing, the branch communities with the CPU via a terminal. A terminal located away from the CPU is referred to as a remote device. It can be a visual display or hard copy terminal connected by telephone lines; but it can also be a secondary storage device or even a card reader, that is an input device that transfers data from punched cards to primary storage.

In this case, punch cards are coded in Hollerith code and contain 80 columns in which holes can be punched. There are twelve rows in each column. The pattern of holes in the column determines the character being represented. The holes are punched with a key punch which has a keyboard similar to that of a typewriter. However, only 80 characters can be recorded in a card reader. Of course it is very slow process of input devices; however, for batch processing, it is considered a very useful method of input.

In this respect, supermarkets often use a similar method with which a Universal Product Code (CPU) is printed on a label. The CPU includes information, such as the product, the manufacturer and the price. All of that information from the label. It is in fact a terminal which can be used to keep inventory.

Answer the following questions based on the text above!
1. What is the primary storage range of microcomputers?
2. What is commonly used in time sharing systems?
3. What can a modem do?
4. What is meant by dedicated line?
5. What is the difference between “distributed data processing” and centrally located computer system?
6. How are punched cards coded?
7. Why can only 80 characters be recorded on a punched card?
8. What is CPU?

Operating Systems

An application program designed to manipulate data rather than govern the operation of the computer. A group of programs which governs the computer’s operations is called the operating system. With older computer, a computer operator was responsible for taking care of many duties: setting switches on the computer, loading the correct translator, putting data cards, and the like. While these duties being performed, the expensive computer was idle. Thus, it wasted a lot of money.

Therefore, the operating system was designed to reduce the need for human activity and to allow the computer to perform these activities at electronic speed. The operating system is made up of the major programs. The supervisor program, such as the supervisor, translator, and utility programs. The supervisor program, for example, is the most important part of the operating system because it provides overall control of the computer system. There are two types of translators: compilers, which has been previously discussed, and the assemblers. The compilers are supposed to translate a high level language into machine language; and the assemblers translate symbolic language into machine language.

Next is utility program. It performs jobs commonly required in most data processing systems, such as sorting and copying. The operating systems are supplied by computer manufacturer and are usually machine dependent.

There are some other techniques to improve computer efficiency. Multiprogramming, for example, makes it possible to run more than one program at a time. The CPU can perform calculating on one program while other programs are using input and output devices. This makes for greater throughout. Another example is the data base, Functioning as the centralized collection of data. Data base management system is a group of programs that maintains the data base. Look at the system flowchart. It will show how the data flows from one component of the system to another.

Answer the following questions based on the text above!
1. What is an applications program?
2. What were the duties of a computer operator in the old days?
3. Why was such a system said to be wasting time?
4. What programs make up the operating system?
5. What does the supervisor program do?
6. What does the utility program do?
7. What is the function of multiprogramming?
8. What is the data base?

Programming Tools

There are a number of rules to follow in writing good programs. Years ago good programs simply ran and got results. However, in today’s world, programs the run well are not necessarily good. Despite producing correct results, as expected, a program may still have problems. For instance, a program needs modification which can be very difficult in a complicated program. For this, flowcharting is very important and helpful to the programmer.

Structured programming refers to group of techniques used to make programming easier. When programmers use these techniques, less time is required, there are fewer errors, and programs are easier to modify. Structured programs rely on the use of subroutines.

What are subroutines? There are times when the computer should perform a specific task several times within a program, or even throughout many program. Rather than rewriting the same instructions every time the task needs to be done, a programmer can write the instructions once, as a subroutine, and the computer is directed to the subroutine whenever necessary. This also has something to do with a loop (in flowcharting), namely a sequence of instructions in a program that can be executed repetitively until an exit criterion is met. One loop cycle is called a pass, and a nested loop is a loop within a loop.

In a program flowchart, there is what is called decision tree. It is a type of program flowchart. The base of the tree is usually at the left, with branches drawn from left to right. The branches represent different outcomes to various decisions. Unlike other flowcharts, the branches are never rejoined.
With regard to programming, the differences between a decision tree and a decision table should be made. The decision tree is a diagram, while the decision table is a chart. Finally the term pseudo code, or simply a pseudo code design refers to a design resembling a correctly coded program. It is a sequence of English sentence that uses only a few words. These key words correspond to the structures found in the program instructions. Many people think pseudo code is easier to write and modify than program flowchart.

A. Answer the following questions based on the text above!
1. How can a programmer write good programs?
2. How important is “structured programming”?
3. What is a Subroutine?
4. What is a decision tree?
5. What is a pseudo code design?
6. What is a decision table?
7. What is represented by the branches?
8. It in “it is a type of program flowchart” refers to …

Key to Telebusiness success: Keeping it all together

An effective telesales of telemarketing organization should start with a simple question: Where to put it? The physical location of a telebusiness department can be one of the most essential factors to its success. In this regard, telebusiness models fall into two broad categories: centralized and decentralized. These two fundamental models can be compared to answer an important question about how to build a telebusiness program that works.
What’s the difference?
If a telebusiness department is decentralized, its staff as spread among two or more offices.
Centralized telebusiness departments come in two flavors. They can operate at the corporate headquarters or might do business out of a single location that is separate from the corporate offices.
There are some reasons someone operates telebusinesss staff out of a single location:

1. Clear communications. Centralizing this telebusiness team enables him to better manage the entire staff and control the quality of telemarketing and telesales efforts. Another key point here is that telesales and telemarketing messaging is ever evolving. As products change, competitors appear and markets mature, the value proposition communicated by his telebusiness staff must be quickly pressed forward.

2. Better teamwork. The importance of morale cannot be overstated. A single, cohesive telebusiness team will encourage and motivate each other through long hours of hard work on the phones. Group exercises, such as role-playing, will improve the productivity of each telesales and telemarketing representative. A centralized telebusiness organization also enables him to make the most of his team. With a close eye on the skills of each member of the group, his managers can better judge when to promote an employee from in-bound calls to cold calling, or from qualifying leads to making sales.

3. Reduce costs. It can be more expensive to spread a telebusiness staff across multiple offices. Decentralized models can create higher systems of cost, the need for additional phone switches, greater time requirements for management and human resources, a larger yet less productive telebusiness staff-the llist goes on.

The Bottom Line: Centralize
In the last ten years, there are many changes in the way telebusiness programs are handled. Today, telebusiness models are a topic at board meetings, where executives discuss telesales and telemarketing strategies. The resources dedicated to telebusiness operations have grown dramatically-especially in technology firms, where rapid sales growth is paramount. As a result, much greater attention is paid to the structure and management of telesales and telemarketing programs.
The advantages of a centralized telebusiness department are: effective management, clear internal communication, high morale, and successful division of labor and low systems of cost.

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
1. Is “clear communication” one of the advantages of a centralized business model?
2. What are the advantages of centralized telebusiness model? (at least three)
3. Is centralized model divided employees into two kinds of office?
4. How do we operate telebusinesss staff out of a single location?
5. What sort of model can create higher system of cost?
6. Does a centralized model spend much time in sales?
7. Why are telesales and telebusiness resources dedicated to technology firms?
8. According to the passage, is there a “low system cost” in a decentralized model?

Setting Goals

Businessman should know the power of setting goals. Setting goals make successful people. However, many people are afraid of setting goals. This is labeled as “Elephant Chains”. When someone learns these “Elephant Chains” he will unleash the success that is within him.

By deciding to set a company goal for –let say-monthly sales, businessmen concentrate on improving their business instead of just working for it. They have to look at the production costs, i.e. parts and direct labor costs, they also need to know what their overhead costs are.

By setting goals in businesses, businessmen will not only increase their sales but also find they key to their company’s continued growth in the future.

The goal period can be set for yearly sales. A businessman must give his employees as many opportunities to win as possible. How can a businessman set his business goal? The followings are the ways that can be used to exercise.

First, a businessman needs to know cost of direct labor for the month. This is the real cost, including tax, insurance, retirement and vacations.

Secondly, he needs the goal cost to the company of all of the parts that were used during the month to produce his product or service.

Now by adding his cost of parts together then taking this figure away from the month’s sales he will have his gross profit figure. As an example in a company with $20,000 in sales, a cost of labor of $6,000 and a cost of parts at $5,000, the gross profit will be $9,000 or 45%.

If he takes the above example, sales of $20,000, he divides this by the total number of invoices that he has produced during the month, let’s say 67, this gives him the average invoice, value of around $300. This figure is a very important one and can be used in a number of difference exercises when somebody is working on some company’s finances.

The last piece of the information jigsaw that he needs is the cost of the month’s overhead. This must include every cost to his business with the exception of direct labor and parts costs. In the example, let us say that our overhead cost us $8,000 per month.

He knows that his overhead $8,000 and his gross profit margin is 45% so he must sell $17,800 per month to break even. He also knows that if he invoices 60 jobs at an average value of $300, he will break even.

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
1. What does the writer think about people who are afraid of setting goals?
2. Does “the cost of labor” influence the gross profit?
3. Why should goals be broken down into short-term goals?
4. What is ‘elephant chains’?
5. What are some real costs for employees?
6. What do companies do to have their gross profit figure?
7. Is the meaning of ‘Weak even’ the same as ‘money loss’?
8. Find the word in the last paragraph that means “neither make profit nor lose some of money”.

The Secret of Skyrocketing Sales

There are secret to be successful in sales. The followings are 6 of them:

1. To set goals. All successful set long-term goals and then they break those goals do into short-term goals. Goals allow a businessman to remain focused, and the more focused he or she is, the more successful he will be. Here’s a tip from elephant chains, a success course to many of the world’s largest corporations: when someone sets any sales goals he needs to break them down into daily goals, then write that number down every morning.
2. To follow a sales procedure. All great doctors, great lawyers, great technicians and great sales people have one thing common. They all follow a procedure that includes asking questions and listening to the customer.
3. To offer people options. People love to buy but they hate to be sold. Movie theaters, grocery stores and clothing stores all understand the principle of options. Great sales people to do too. By offering options someone allows his customer to remain in controls and he allow the customer to compare one of his services to another one of his services rather than compare it to what his competitors offer.
4. To practice. All great athletes and sales people understand the principle the principle of what’s referred to as muscle memory. It’s conditioning them to the point whereas they don’t have to think about what to do next. If they are a prizefighter or sales professional, their reactions are instinctive and they happen automatically. Practicing sales techniques on co-workers rather than customers is recommended.
5. Never look at selling as “linking deals” or “getting the dollars”.
Obvious a salesperson has to have sales goals and has to pay attention to the numbers. The truly eat sales people sell with their hearts rather than with pens. When a salesperson truly cares about people, and when the customers realize the salesperson cares more about them than their money, then and only then will he have the opportunity to sell.
6. To follow up with each and every customer. General electric studies have found that word-of-mouth advertising is there to five times more effective than any other media. Referral customers come to a salesperson with many things, yet none is more important than a belief in him. Subsequently, one sure fire way of driving up sales is by driving up his number of referred customers.

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
1. Do you think the writer use these secrets to grow his own business?
2. Is daily goal more effective than monthly goal?
3. What is the advantage of setting goals?
4. Why does the writer suggest giving options to customers?
5. According to the writer, is practicing your sales techniques to the customers more important than practicing to co-workers?
6. What do you think the difference between long-term goals and short-term goals?
7. What does “offering options” mean?
8. What does the writer mean by “Never look at selling as “linking deals”?

Preventing Employees from Failing

Suspicion and dissatisfaction with an employee’s performance may create a ‘failure mindset’ of a manager toward employee. Time after time, this manager may stop believing in the employee and a cycle that revolves low morale, low performance and deterioration of performance starts.
A chain reaction begins to happen with this employee once the manager’s mentality changes toward him. First he might turn in a project that has been completed improperly. In response, the manager reprimands him. His self-confidence decreases which leads to a reduction in productivity. The more the manager disciplines and chastises him, the more his motivation is undermined. When people perceive chronic disapproval or lack of confidence and appreciation they tend to shut down.

Here is an example of the issue. John was the President of a small company and a client of mine. He hired a new controller for his company who seemed to be a sharp, loyal and ambitious professional. Two months into the relationship John started doubting the capabilities of his controller. He started communicating his frustration to his colleagues. When of one of his colleagues asked what went wrong he answered that the controller was still not up to speed and that he failed to prepare a very important report for him last month. John’s colleagues asked him if he had communicated or at least found out what happened with the controller. His answer was, “I hired him for that. He was supposed to know that I need that report for my board of directors.”

There are of course some possible solutions, but several things many managers try that actually make the situation worse are often carried out some of the thing are:

1. Requiring approval before making decisions. Becoming stricter with a troubled employee will only aggravate the situation. With employees who suffer from low self-esteem, having someone looking over their shoulder every step of the way is stressful and distracting. By allowing them to work on their own, the leader is breaking the thought pattern of “failure” and displaying the trust he has in his employee.
2. Avoiding face-to-face confrontations. Instead of dealing directly face-to-face with his employees he may choose to communicate his dissatisfaction or concern via email. But he should not fall into the temptation. Progressive leaders make the time and effort to Mo the right thing” and discuss issues in person with their employees. Granted, these discussions are no fun for anyone.
3. Allowing his perceptions to prevail. A perception about a situation sometimes is strong and it may end up with reality – whether it is true or not, it can create turbulence and a string of bad decisions. When a manager is dealing with a troubled employee – before he discusses the issue with the troubled employee. He usually bases his decisions on his perception and not necessarily the facts.
4. Low expectations. If he expects too little from his employee and he does not present new challenges, his employee will come to doubt his or her own thinking and his confidence in them. When they lose the confidence of their manager, only negative things follow.

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
1. If a manager reprimands an employee, will the employee’s self-confidence likely decrease?
2. What will happen when people perceive chronic disapproval?
3. Is avoiding face-to-face confrontation a solution to improve employee’s performance?
4. Why is John dissatisfied with his controller?
5. Do you think it is good for low self-esteem employees to always have approval before making decision in their work?
6. What does “do the right thing” in paragraph 4 mean?
7. Should manager lose his employees’ confidence?
8. What are the things that many managers try to make situation better but actually they make it worse?

Nilai Mid Test Bahasa Inggris Fak Ekonomi Th 2009

Nilai Mid test bahasa inggris mahasiswa Universitas AKI Ngabang fakultas ekonomi semester 2 angkatan 2008
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Nilai Mid test Pemasaran Internasional mahasiswa Universitas AKI Ngabang fakultas ekonomi semsester 6 angkatan 2006
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Types of Computers

Digital and Analog
These two types of computers are very different; while the purpose of the digital computer is to count, the purpose of the analog computer is to measure. The digital computer is to count by utilizing series of digits to represents number by measuring succh things are electricity or temperature. The speedometer in a car work in much the same way as an analog computers works.

Compared to the analog computer, the digital computer is more accurate and veresatile. Unlike the digital computer, which has a very large number of applications in a variety of fields such as business and government, the analog computer is used mainly for scientific applications in laboratory environments.
Types of Digital Computer: Special Purpose and General Purpose
There are two types of digital computers – the special purpose and the general purpose computer. As its name implies, the special purpose computer is designed for a single and unique purpose. Examples of special computers are those in air traffic or military defense system. In contrast, the general purpose computer, as its name also implies, can have a variety of application in different areas. This is possible through the use of appropriate software, the same general purpose computer can be used for business, scientific, educational or even entertainment purposes.

Types of General Purposes Computers: Micros, Minis, and Mainframes
General purposes computers are also divided into diffferent types, depending upon the computer’s power, speed and size. There are three main types of general purposes computers – the small micro computer, the medium size mini computer, and the large mainframe. In spite of the fact that these computers are different, they all have the same basic components-a processor unit, input and output devices and secondary or auxiliary storage units. All computers also carry out the same basic functions.

The Micro Computers or the Personal Computer
The micro computer or personal computer is the smallest of all general purpose computers. The personal computer is designed to be used by only one person at a time. These computers are also “desk top” computers and are able to fit on top of a desk or a table. While personal computers may vary in size, most are fairy portable and can be carried from place to place. The micro computer is also designed to be “user friendly”, that is easily understood and operated by the average person. Micros are currently used for different purposes for many fields including business, the home and education. In business, personal computer can do many things, including computing payrolls, predicting a company’s future growth by carrying out complex analysis with financial planning programs, and producing colorful charts and graphs. In the home micros can be used for such things are balancing check books, typing letters, or playing games. Educational uses of micros include computer assisted instruction (CAI), which help artists draw pictures and musicians compose music.

Answer the following questions based on the text above!
1. What are the characteristics of digital computer?
2. Compare and contrast the analog and the digital computer!
3. What are the differences between special purpose and general purpose computer?
4. How are general purpose computers divided into?
5. What is meant by “user friendly”?
6. How is micro computer used in business. home and education? Give example?
7. What is the other name for micro computer?
8. How many types of computers are there?
9. What does CAI stand for?
10. What are the same basic components of general purpose computers?

Software

Software, as it comes to be known, refers to the programs, that is the intagible components. The terms “software” is opposed to hardware as its counterpart, which refers to the physical components of the computer.
In designing a conputer system, there are a few procedures that should be followed. For instance, in a large system, such as one in a bank, the system is further divided into smaller program modules. Each modules performs a specific tasks. There is a module for individual customer accounts, another for corporate accounts, still another for employee payroll and so on. Each of these modules is then assigned to aprogrammer.

The programmer determines an algorithm, a series of steps to accomplish a given task. The next procedure is to design a program flowchart, that is a diagram of steps involved, using a template. Finally, from the program flowchart, the program is encoded into program instructions. These instructions will be used by computer to execute the program.

One important thing to consider is that each modules has to be debugged. During the design process, there are countless ways that bugs may creep in. For instance, the programmer may make a syntax error in a statement. In this case, the computer-a program which translates all the statements into machine language – will print a diagnostic message upon recognizing the incorrect syntax. The translation of all statements into machine language as previously stated is done in the compiulation run. The O’s and 1’s of the machine language are used by the CPU to execute the program.

A prepared test data is used to debug a program. When all smaller modules are properly running, they are grouped together, tested as a single module, and debugged. Once the overall program is working properly, then it is ready to go on line.
However, not all program are written this way. Programs are not always broken down into modules. There is one more important step, program should be debugged. Without documentation describing the system, further modification is very difficult.

Answer the following questions based on the text above!
1. What is the difference between “software” and “hardware”?
2. What is the Indonesian word for “still”? (paragraph two)
3. What is meant by an alogaritm?
4. What can a program flowchart be designed?
5. On what basis are the program instructions made?
6. Why should a program be debugged?
7. What will print a disgnostic message?
8. When will a diagnostic message be printed?
9. How is a program debugged?
10. What is the last important thing about programming? why is it important?

Indosat - Net

“Good morning, ladies and gentlemen. Welcome to Indosat-net. In this opportunity. I would like to tell you a little bit about Internet.
Internet is highly sophisticated means of communication. It is actually a combined use of computer and telephone. You have to install a modem in your computer of particular configuration , say window 95. After this session, our staff will show you how to install a modem. Let us now focus our attention to some termonologies that are used in Internet. You may know English well; but I think you will find it hard to understand special terms without explanation from the experts.

First, let me tell you the difference between dial-up and dedicated. The term dial-up means that you pay the bill depending on how often you make use of the internet; while dedicated means that you will have to pay a particular amount of money regardless of how often you use the Internet. Which one is better?

Next is WWW. It stands for World Wide Web. This facility can access information in the form of multimedia (text, picture, and voice). The advantages of using WWW include (1) the information is up to date), represented in various media, so that the user can easily make use of the information; (2) the user get the impression that he or she is really facing the things without directly seeing them. This is because of the multimedia.
Now, what is E-Mail (Electronic Mail)?. Linguistically it means a mail which is sent electronically. With this facility, you can just type the letter then press S-Key (send) or any other key depending on your internet system. Sending a mail from Semarang to Brisbane takes only 3 or 4 seconds.

Next is what is called newsgroup. This facility can be used for group discussion through internet. The user can select his or own group, even he or she can decide the issues and types of discussion. This facility, I think, has something to do with IRC (Internet Relay Chat). IRC, as it is called, is another type of communication without limit of distance, time, and place. The user can communnicates with other users of different continents with local pulses.
IRC has been developed into voice communication. Even now, it has become what is called video conference with some advantages, such as (1) global communication, meaning that we can communicate with anybody with local pulses; (2) meeting or conferencecan be held witghout limit of time, place, and distance, even betweeen continents; and (3) the user can “attend” in a lot conferences.

Finally, let us talk about Telnet. This facility enables a user to operate computer without being in front of them. The advantage of this facility is that a user should not move from place to another in order to operate a lot of computers. For example, a boss can control the book keeping computer at this office from his house. Therefore, he saves his time and transportation expenses. That’s all what I can say. Do you have any questions?

Answer the following questions based on the text above!
1. What should you install in your computer bedore you can get access to internet?
2. What is the difference between dial-up networking and dedicated networking?
3. What can you do with WWW facility?
4. What is meant by IRC?
5. What can a user do with IRC?
6. What is the latest development or IRC?
7. What about the fee for IRC?
8. What facility is best for a boss? why?
9. What is good about E-Mail?
10. What is bad about E-Mail?

Fill the blanks with suitable words from the list below.
1. DELETE
2. BACKSPACE
3. ESCAPE
4. FONT
5. INSERT
6. SELECT
7. UNDO
8. SHIFT
9. ENTER
10. SAVE
11. TOOLS

1. Changing the ... means changing the size of the letters.
2. You can use the ... key to cancel the menu
3. The ... menu is used to cancel the previous command.
4. Wrongly typed words can be deleted by pressing the ... key.
5. Pressing the ... key along with typing a letter will result in a capital letter.
6. Blocking in wordstar in similar to ... (ing) in WP or MsWORD.
7. If you want to check the spelling, you will have to use the ... menu.
8. Do not forget to ... your document for future use.
9. If the ... key is off, you always overwrite the bext letter.
10. To ... means ti wipe out all files in the directory.

Translate the text into good Indonesian.
Internet, which stands for International Network, has become one of the most sophicticated means of communication. It is a combined use of computer and telephone. Another similar means of telecommunication is called facsimile, a combined use of telephone and photocopier.

Computer Literacy

Computer are everywhere. There is one in every digital watch and every pocket calculator. New cars, television sets, microwave ovens, and typewriters often have computers. Without computers, there would be no video games and no electronic toys. At the office, computers help people type, file information, and send messages back and forth. In the factory, computers guide robot arms that build cars.

Computers are making revolutionary changes in the way we life, play and work. Are these good changes? some people worry that we may become slaves to this new machine, totally dependent on it and no longer in control of our lives. Others see a brighter future in which people are masters and machines are helpers. Which future will actually happen?

The answer to that question depends on what you decide to do about the computer. You can decide that computers are too difficult and leave the whole subjects in the hands of the “experts”. Or you can decide to learn about computers and take control of them yourself. In other words, you can become computer literate.

It took you may years to master the skills of reading and writing, but these skills give you freedom. You do not have to depend on others to read street sign for you, or to tell you the latest news, or to write letters to friends or representatives in congress. You do not have to trust experts, you are literate. In the same way, your “math literacy” gives you freedom. You do not have to trust a math expert to tell you wheter three oranges for 80 cents is better buy than one orange for 25 cents. You are in control.

Computer literacy is like these other skills: it takes time and practice to learn, but it puts you in control of the computer expert. When you become computer literate, you will know two important things: (1) What things a computer can do and (2) how to do the things you want it to do.

VOCABULARY:
1. FILE
2. EXPERTS
3. PRACTICE
4. TYPE
5. SLAVES
6. CONTROL
7. MASTER
8. MACHINE
9. LITERATE
10. SKILL

TRANSLATE
1. A computer should take control of by human
2. Technology is changing over time in line with human needs
3. The train in Japan is almost never late. It has a tight and computer schedule
4. The difficulty of learning computer is how to tell the computer to do things we like it to do
5. The people in our computer industry are very professional

Answer the following questions based on the text above!
1. What happens if there are no computers?
2. What can a computer do at the office?
3. What does “this new machine” refer to?
4. In what way can literacy give you freedom? give examples.
5. What can you do if you are computer literate?

The Difference Between Managing and Leading

What’s the difference between leading and managing employees? and what does the role as a leader now encompass? leaders are the heart of a business. The essence of leadership means inspiring a group to come together for a common goal. leders motivate, console and work with people to keep them bonded and eager to move forward. That means setting a direction, communicating it to everyone who will listen (and probably many who won’t) and keeping people psyched when times get tough.

Managers are the brains of a business. They establish systems, create rules and operating procedures, and put into place incentive programs and the like. Management, however, is about the business, not the people; the people are important as a way of getting the job done.
Most business executives and owners have a mix of management and leadership skills. Both skill sets are necessary to rim a successful business (unless it is a very small business with people who naturally mesh very well). Leadership skills provide the direction, while management skills provide the systems that let a company grow with success.

Only the top executives can set direction in a company. Setting direction is different from setting goals. A goal is concrete and measurable, for example: “we must sell 10 widgets by next Tuesday.” Direction is broader. Leaders set direction with a vision, a mission and operating principles that embody the company’s direction and values.
For instance, a mission statement for the imaginary Personal Assistants Inc. Company might sound like this: “We free people from life’s drudgery, freeing them to live a life of doing only the things they do best.” This mission doesn’t give measurable goals, but rather points to an overall direction-it gets people excited and moving in one direction.
As a business owner, someone should know his business’s direction. It might be broad, sweeping and world shattering. Or it might be smaller and local: “Smith Tailors make our customers look their best in their daily and business lives. “ But know his job to set the direction for everyone around him and communicate it well.

People sometimes forget a company’s direction in the heat of excitement over a new idea or market development. It it happens once or twice, it’s not a problem. But too many diversions can cause a company to lose focus and end up serving many different customers, in which none of them well.
A business owner’s job is to bring people back to the company direction gently and consistently and always challenge them to evaluate ideas and decisions with respect to the decision. If personal assistants propose asking clients to give 24-hour notice when they have a project, the leader simply asks: Does this help us free clients from drudgery or make more for them? The team can then decide (or even ask customers) wheter the suggestion aligns with mission.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
1. What is the essence of leadership?
2. Do management and leadership skills always come together in a succesful business?
3. Who is the heart of a product?
4. Is “widgets” a name of a product?
5. Should a business owner know much about business derection?
6. What are the responsibilities of a leader?
7. What should a manager be capable of as the brain of a business?
8. Which one is the most important thing in management, “people” or “business”?
9. Mention the two skills necessary to achieve a successful business!
10. What is the difference between goals and direction?

Knowing The Market

A sound marketing plan is key to the success of someone’s business. It should include a market research, locations, customer groups who are targeted, competition, positioning, the product or service which is pricing, advertising and promotion.
Derek Hansen, founder of American capital Access says that someone is in business to serve customers’ needs. If he is not sensitive to customers, he doesn’t know who his customerss are, how to reach them and, most of all, what will convince them to buy his product nor service, he should get help.

Before developing a plan, a businessman must do homework. Effective marketing, planning and promotion begin with factual information about the market place. He should visit his local library, talk to customers, study the advertising of other business es in his community (including that of his competition) and consult with any related industry associations.
Once he has all the necessary information, it is time to put his plan down on paper. It should accomplish the following:
1. Defining business. A manager should define his business by determining the products (goods and service), the geographic marketing area neighbourhood, regional or national. He also needs to know his competition, how he differs from his competition , his prices, his methods of promotion distribution both of his business and his competitors.
2. Definition customers. A complete understanding of the customers is necessary. A businessman needs to know his customers based on age, sex and also income. He also needs to know how the customers learn about his products wheter by advertising, direct mail, word-of-mouth, or perhaps Yellow Pages. The other important thing about the customers is the customers’ value on products such as convenience, service, reliability, availability, affordability etc.

The final component in his marketing plan should be his overall promotional objectives. They include communicating his message, creating and awareness of his product or service, motivating customers to buy and increasing sales.
Objectives make it easy to design an effective campaign and help him keep that campaign on the right track. These objectives will also help to choose the method that will be most effective.

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
1. How can a businessman make a sound marketing plan?
2. Does the third paragraph tell about doing a survey to evaluate the market?
3. When we want to set up our marketing plan, is it necessary to consider our competitors’?
4. What does “it” in the first line of paragraph 1 refer to?
5. To define the costumers, should we know their potential share?
6. According to the second paragraph, what are the important things should bussinessmen know to serve the customers’ need?
7. What does the writer suggest to get factual information about the market place?
8. Give some examples of “television advertising” about product?
9. What do we do to promote our business objective?
10. What is the final component of a marketing plan?

What Makes a Great Manager?

The first step to becoming a really great manager is simply common sense: but common sense is not very common. This article suggests some common-sense ideas on the subject of great management.

The major prombel when someone starts to manage is that he/she does not actually think about management issues nbecause he or she doesn not recognize them. Put simply, things normally go wrong not because he is stupid but only because he has never thought about them. Management is sbout pausing to ask the right questions so that someone’s common sense can provide the answers.

When someone gains managerial responsibility, his first option is the easy option: he should do what is expected of him. He is new at the job, so people will understand. He can learn (slowly) by his mistakes and probably he will try to devote as much time as possible to the rest work (which is what he was good at anyway). Those exra little “management” problems are just common sense, so he should try to deal with them when they come up.

His seccond option is far moreexciting: he can become a Super Manager. When he becomes a manager, he gains control over his own work; not all of it, but some of it. He can change things. He can do things differently. He actually has the authority to make a huge impact upon the way in which his staff works. He can shape his own work environment.

In a large company, his option may be limited by the existing corporate culture – and therefore he should act like a crab: face directly into the main thrust of corporate policy, and makes changes sideways. He doesn’t want to fight the system, but rather to work better within it. In a small company, his options are possible much wider (since custom is often less rigid) and the impact that he and his team have upon the company’s success is proportionately much greater. Thus once he starts working well, this will be quickly recognized and nothing gains faster approval than success. But wherever he works, he should not be put off by the surprise colleagues will show when he first gets serious about managing well.

A manager of a small team has three major roles to play:
 A manager is a planner. A manager has to take a long-term view; indeed, the higher he rises, the further he will have to look. While a team member will be working towards known and established goals, the manager must look further ahead so that these goals are selected wisely.
 A manager is a provider. A manager has access to information and materials, nwhich the team needs. Often he/she has the authority of influence to acquire things which no one else in the team could. This role for the manager is important simply because no one else can do the job.
 A manager is a protector. The team needs security from the vagaries of less enlightened managers. In any company, there are short-term excitements that can deflect the work force from the important issues. The manager should be there to guard against these and to protect the team.

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
1. Should a manager recognize the management issues to manage the company?
2. What are the two options to be responsible manager?
3. Should a manager look further ahead than his staff?
4. Why does the writer suggest us to act like a crab?
5. What is a manager responsible for as a protector?
6. What are the roles of a manager?
7. Does a manager control his environment totally?
8. What do you call somebody who has to provide something to fulfil the team needs?

Taking Responsibility-Leadership

People tend to blame each other when they are asked why thin weren’t progessing as planned. Intellectuals know that blaming others for bad circumstances is not a healthy habit. Why do people do this? what positive result does it bring? why is it so hard to stop? Wouldn’t they be better off it they ceased and desisted?

Blamming others is one of the worst things someone can do in relation to emotional integrity. It is distantly related to an addiction. Pretty soon almost everything that does not happen according to his liking becomes someone else’s fault.

If someone wants to become a progessive leader – if excellence and success is his motto in life – then blaming others cannot be tolerated. There are several steps to help people overcome the blaming addiction and take responsibility for themselves. They are:
 Be aware. Too often someone falls to notice that he is playing the blame game. It’s a natural defence mechanism. Paying attention to how he responds when he is quistioned about his actions or performance is the first step in taking responsibility.
 Respond responsibly. Just as blaming is a defensive more, so is reacting. Rather than react – he should respond. He has a choice of reacting impulsively or responding cautiously to the situation.
 Be honest. Let’s face it – some people simply like to place blame in order to be relieved of responsibility. That shows a huge lack of self – honesty.
 Don’t burn bridges. What happens to relationships when someone places from his co-workers, peers, vendors and others by pointing fingers.
 Be a good role model. When others see someone accepting responsibility for his actions – and when they see the extraordinary results he is getting – he makes the statement that blame placing is not acceptable behaviour.
 Have a positive and grateful attitude. Being a progressive leader means being a highly effective leader, and accepting nothing less than excellence from someone and others.


VOCABULARY LIST
1. Revolve : Berkisar, berputar
2. Admit : Mengakui
3. Revive : Tumbuh lagi, bangun kembali, giat lagi
4. Refugee : Pengungsi
5. Coach : Melatih
6. Revelation : Wahyu, Petunjuk
7. Cease : Berhenti
8. Desisted : Diberhentikan
9. Integrity : Ketulusan hati, kejujuran, nintegritas
10. Defensive : Sifat bertahan
11. Relieve : Meringankan
12. React : Bereaksi
13. Alienate : Mengasingkan diri, menjauhkan diri
14. Peer : Kawan sebaya, kawan sekerja
15. Extraordinary : Luar biasa

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
1. According to the writer, is blaming others a healthy habit?
2. What do you think the job of the writer
3. Can blaming others be tolerated?
4. How many steps are there to overcome the blaming addiction?
5. Should a personnel respond to some questions of his actions if he takes the responsibility?
6. What may happen to someone when he or she places blame to others?
7. Can placing blame on others relieve us from responsibility?
8. What do the most people do to relieve us from responsibility?
9. Find the word or phrases that means, “to do something that you can’t change?
10. Should a manager be thankful to his staff?

Input and Output Devices

Input devices are used to transmit data to the CPU. If we wanted to add a series of number using the computer, the number to be added would be transmitted to the CPU by one of the following devices.
The computer terminal, perhaps, the most common input device in computer system (it is also used as an output device). It consists of a keyboard and a screen called CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). If punched cards are used as input in a particular computer system, then an input device known as a card reader is needed. The card reader “reads” the data in the punched holes by using wire brushes or light beam. It then converts, or changes, this data into electronic signals or pulses which can be understood by the computer.

The console is a computer terminal that has special functions. The computer operator uses this machine for several purposes. He or she can control the other manhines in the system and can enter input by means of the console. The operator can use the console to communicate with the other users by sending messages from the console to the individual terminals in the system.
Another input device that is used in some systems is called a Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MIRC). This machine “reads” characters made with magnetized ink and transmits the data to the CPU. Characters made with magnetic ink are readable by both humans and machines. A bank, for example, would use MIRC to input the account number on the bottom of a person check.

An input device that is used more and more frequently is the optical scanner or the optical mark recognition device. It is referred to as “optical” because it works in a way that is not dissimilar to the human eye works. Such as machine “reads” coded symbols and transmits them as an electrical signal to the CPU. Many standardized tests are graded by a computer. The data from these tests are entered by means of an optical mark recognition device. Many supermarkets use optical scanners prices and keep current inventories.

A magnetic tape drive is used to convert data stored ass magnetic tape into electrical signals which can be understood by the CPU as it function is as an input device. It can also be used as an output device when it is used to record output from the CPU on magnetic tape.

Other sophisticated input devices will become quite common in the near future. Voice input devices, for example which is also called speech recognition devices, will be a very popular input method. Handicapped people will be able to communicate with the CPU in some systems by means of eye movements. Although such input devices are very advanced, they will be seen often in computer systems over the next few years.

There are several types of output devices. Some of them, such as tape and disk drive and terminals, are used as input devices. When a terminal or video monitor is used as an output device, the information displayed on the screen is called sofy copy. This means that the information shown is temporary. Another kind of output device is needed to obtain a permanent copy of the information.

The device used to get a printed, permanent copy, or hard copy of the information is called a printer. Printers are divided into two major types: Impact and non impact. When an impact printer receive signals from the CPU, the characters in the printer strike the paper in much the same way as those in a typewriter hit the paper. Some of these printers print only one character at a time, although they can print approximately 900 characters a minute. Other impact printers, called line printers, print one line at a time.

Non impact printers are newer than impact printers. These printers operate by means of heat and heat-sensitive paper, electrical charges (positive or negative), or by laser beams. Some non impact printers can print to 5.000 lines per minute. In addition to being faster than impact printers, they will probably replace impact printers in the years to come because they can print special characters and can be used with special forms.

A plotter is a special kind of device that, like impact and non impact printers, also produces hard copy. It is used to display output in graphic, or picture form. Instead of actually printing the output, the plotter draws it.
The output device used in conjunction with punched cards is called a card punch. This machine receives signals from the CPU and converts these signals into the hollerith code. The coded information is then punched onto cards.

A. Answer the following questions based on the text above
1. Mention the components of computer system!
2. What special function does a console have?
3. What is the optical mark recognition used for?
4. How does a computer grade tests?
5. What is meant by MIRC?
6. What is the difference between soft copy and hard copy?
7. How does a card punch work?
8. Will non impact printers replace impact printers? Why?
9. “This machine receives......” What does “This” refer to?
10. What is used to display output in graphic, or picture form?

Strategy Planning

Planning has long been integral part of business growth. As a business to grows, the manager needs to regroup and update long-term plans. An agressive plan of action to approach the market involves a strategy and, like most endeavours, it requires ongoing planing.
To think more creatively, first a manager should look at the overall, big picture of his business. Where is he now and where does he want to be? He’ll be undertaking a discovery process that will give him guidelines, which lead turn to his goals.

The discovery process would involve a review and/or evaluation of the existing situation. If the manager has not got it yet, he may need to survey his customers and public to find out if his product or service has benefied them, if the customers feel it can be improved in some ways, and what suggestions or comments they have about it.

From there, he’ll be armed with information to help him deliver what his public wants and plot a plan of attack. He might then take a look as some other ways to enter the market, and also find out other target markets to reach out. He should see if his product or service can be used somewhere else to a different niche. He should also check if he could package his product or service differently.

His growth strategy should also include setting profitability objectives. Profitability is measured by the executive’s perspective. Since an executive’s most valuable resource is time, it is necessary to determine how much, in dollars, that time is worth (establishing the value of an hour). Time way well be an executive’s most important asset and, using it wisely, will improve quality of life by helping to find time to spend on other things (without sacrificing income).
In the process of change, he should also anticipate the staffing needed for growth. If he finds himself trying to do too much, he’s probably noticed that he is not doing all of it well, or efficiently. So, he should take a look at if he is really saving money by not adding perssonnel.

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
1. Is the necessary for a company te regroup and update long term plans when its business grows?
2. How is discovery process conducted?
3. Are consumers’ comments involved in discovery process?
4. Should an executive measure profitability?
5. What things are necessary to do when a business grows?
6. Should we know costumers’ comments about our products?
7. Which one is the most important for executives “Time or Income”? why is it so?
8. Why is it necessary for an executive to determine the value of this time?

The Role of Accounting

Some people think that accounting is a very technical field. Only professional accountant can understand it. Actually, nearly people practice accounting in a certain form on almost daily activity
Accounting is the art of interpreting, measuring, and describing economic activity. Wheter you are preparing a household budget, preparing your income tax return, or running in the business, you are working with accounting information.
Accounting is often called the language of business. People in business world-owners, managers, bankers, investors all use accounting terms and concepts to describe the resources and the activities of every business, large and small. Accounting provides a framework for looking at past performance, current financial health, and possible future performance. It also provides a framework for comparing the financial performances of different firms.

Financial information about a business is needed by managerial decision makers to help them to plan and control the activities of the organization. Financial information is also needed by outsiders-creditors, investor, and the public-who have supplied money to the business.
The field of accounting is divided into four main ideas: financial accounting, auditing, managerial accounting, and tax accounting. Financial accounting is the branch of accounting that prepares financial reports used by managers and outsiders. The process of reviewing the records used to prepare financial statement is called auditing.

Managerial accounting provides financial information that can be used to evaluate and make decisions about current and future operations. The fourth branch off accounting is tax accounting. It developes tax strategies and prepares tax return.
Independent accoutants who serves organizations and individuals on a fee basis are called private accountant. They may do financial accounting, auditing, managerial accounting, or tax accounting.

The accounting Cycle
the first step in the accounting cycle is to analyse the data collected from many sources. All transactions with a financial impact on the firm must be documented. Next each transaction is ordered in a journal, a listing of financial transactions in chronological order. Then the journal entries are classified into accounts, categories of items that appear in the financial statement, which are records of increases in a specific asset. The accounts are next generally prepared quarterly but may be prepared only at year – end.
The asset are listed in order of their liquidity, the speed with which they can be converted to cash. The most liquid assets come first, and the least liquid are last. Because the cash is the most liquid asset, it is listed on the balance sheet from to lest liquid.

Revenues
Revenues are the money amount of sales plus any other income received from sources like interest, dividends and rents. revenues are determined starting with gross sales, the total discounts and return and allowences from gross sales.

• QUESTION FOR COMPREHENSION

1. What is accounting?
2. What is auditing?
3. What is liquidity?
4. What is financial accounting?
5. What is public accountant?
6. What is Private accountant?
7. What is journal?
8. What is tax accounting?
9. Who does practice accounting in a certain form in an almost daily activity?
10. When are working with accounting concepts?
11. Why is accounting called the language of the business>
12. What are provided by accounting?
13. Why is financial information needed by managerial decision makers?
14. Name the four areas of accounting?
15. Who do public accountant and private accountant do?

Promotional Strategy

Promotion is marketing activity that stimulates demand for a firm’s products. Maketers promote everything from needle to aircraft. Once the product has been created, promotion is often used to competition.

Promotional strategy is the plan for informing, persuading, or reminding the target market about a product. The goal is to stimulate action. In a profit-oriented firm, the desired action is for the consumer to buy the promoted item.

The combination of advertising, personal selling, sales promotion, and publicity used to promote a product is called the promotional mix.
Advertising is any nonpersonal message paid for by an identifiable sponsor for the purpose of promoting products. Companies use two types of advertising: product advertising and institutional advertising. Product advertising, is advertising intended to promote demand for a product or service such as Pepsodent toothpaste. Institutional advertising is advertising done to enhance a company ‘s public image rather than to sell a product.

The second element of the promotional mix is personal selling. It is a face-to face attempt to persuade prospective customers to buy a given product. Personal selling provides the company with the opportunity (1) to give customers individuals attention, (2) to adapt a message to the customer, (3) to focus on a specific target market, (4) to receive immediate feedback, and (5) to provide the opportunity to close the sale.

The third element of the promotional mix is sales promotion. It is the marketing activities, other than personal selling and advertising that stimulate consumers purchasing and dealer effectiveness. Sales promotion supports the other three elements in the marketing mix.
The fourth element of the promotional mix is publicity. It is nonpaid, nonpersonal communication to promote the products, services, or image of the company. It is an important element of the promotional mix that can be overlooked because of its nature.
The four elements of the promotional mix need to be blended to communicate effectively to a target market. Each type of promotion serves a different function and therefore should support the other elements. There are two potential promotional strategy: push strategy and pull strategy.

A push strategy is a strategy directed at the members of the marketing channels rather than the consumer. A pull strategy is a strategy aimed at the consumer. To accomplish this strategy rely on the advertising, sales promotion, and publicity elements of the promotiuon mix.

QUESTIONS FOR COMPREHENSION
1. What is promotion?
2. What is promotional strategy?
3. What is promotional mix?
4. Name the promotional mix elements?
5. What is advertising?
6. What are the two types of advertising used by companies?
7. What is product advertising?
8. What is institutional advertising?
9. What is personal selling?
10. What is sales promotion?
11. What is publicity?
12. Name the elements of promotional strategy?
13. What is push strategy?
14. What is pull strategy?

What is Marketing

The American Marketing Association defines marketing as the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organisational objectives.
Marketing activities are required for many differgent kinds of products. Product is not only tangible goods. Those that can be held or touched such as health care services.

Ultimately the purpose of marketing activities is to bring about exchanges. Exchange is the process by which parties provide something of value to one another to satisfy the needs of each.
Through activities that enables exchanges to take place, marketing adds value to products. This value is known as utility, the ability of a product to satisfy a customer need. There are four types of utility: form, time, place, and possession.

Marketing directly creates three types of utility. By marketing products available when costumers want and need them, marketing creates time utility. Publishing company print and distribute morning newspaper early so readers can read them at breakfast or while commuting to work.
Marketing products available where consumers need or want to obtain them creates place utility. Newspaper are delivered to homes and business; sold in supermarket , and bookstores. Marketing creates possession utility when the ownership of a product is transferred from seller to buyer. To obtain newspaper, costomers pay the publishing company for home delivery, or pay clerks in stores.

Marketing is important to organisations are consumers alike. It touches the lives of all members of society. Through the cost of what we purchase, each of us supports the costs of marketing. Most people would agree that marketing costs are worth it because the many and varied marketing ectivities enable us to satisfy our needs and wants. A need is something required for human survival, such as food, water, shelter, and clothing. A want is something desired but not necessary for basic survival. Without marketing, many needs and wants would go unsatisfied.
The efforts of marketing are directed at a market. It is a group of potential customers with the authority and ability to purchase a particular product or service that satisfies their collective demand. There are two major markets: consumer and industrial. The consumer markets is composed of individuals who buy products for their personal use. The industrial market consists of businesses that buy products to use in making other products.

The large industrial and consumer markets need to be divided into smaller markets. This process of the dividing markets into subgroups with similar characteristics is called market segmentation.
A management philosophy stating that an organisation should strive satisfy the needs of consumers through a co-ordinated set of activities to achieve its objectives is known as marketing concept the marketing concept calls for all departments to be committed to satisfying consumers. To put the marketing concept into action, a firm must decide on the appropriate marketing activities to satisfy consumer needs and achieve its goals.

Give your complete answer to the following questions.
1. What is the definition of marketing?
2. What is the purpose of marketing activities?
3. What is utility?
4. What are the four types of utility?
5. Why marketing is important to organisation and consumers alike?
6. What are the two major market?
7. What is marketing concepts?
8. What is market?


Choose the correct answer according to the reading passage

1. It is required for many different kinds of products.
a. Marketing assosiation
b. Marketing activities
c. Products value

2. The ability of a product to satisfy a consumer need.
a. utility
b. Exchange
c. Conception

3. Semething required for human survival
a. Want
b. Need
c. Utility
4. Something desired but not necessary for basic survival
a. Want
b. Need
c. Utility

5. A group of potential customers that can buy a particular product
a. Market
b. Purchasers
c. Individuals

Product and Price

A product is a good, service, or idea including all the tangibles and intangibles provided in an exchange between a buyer and a seller. People buy a product for the benefits and satisfaction it gives. A product can be a good (like a car) or a service (like your checking account at the bank). Sometimes a product is a blend of the both. Dinner at a restaurant, for example. Consists not only of tangible items – food and beverages – but also preparation, service, and the appeal of dining in that special setting.

Product used by individuals for personal and family cosumption are consumer products. Inexpensive goods and services that consumer often buy, without much thought or effort, are convenience products. Milk, bread, magazine, soft drinks are examples. An item that buyers will expend time and effort to find and purchase is shopping product. This category includes goods such as TV set, VCRs, major appliances, and furniture, and services such as dental care, legal advice, and tax preparation.

Goods and services that have specific attributes desired by a particular group of consumers are known as speciality products. Speciality products can be expensive and unique, such as Mercedes sports car.

Products used by organisations in producing goods or services are known as industrial products.
A group of related goods or services marketed by a firm is called product line. A firm’s product can be shallow, with only one or two products, or deep, including many products. The collection of items and services a firm offers for sale is known as product mix. Marketers refer to product mixes as narrow or wide, depending on how many product lines are carried.

PRICING
The price of a product is one of its most important aspects for both sellers and buyers. Price is the value that buyers exchange for a product in the marketing transaction. Money usually is the value exchanged for a product that satisfies a consumers and greatly affects purchase decisions.
A firm cannot determine a product’s price without considering several factors that affect price. Managers must take into account the use of price and non-price competition, supply and demand, and consumer perception of price. Firms competing based on price competition. It is policy of using price to differentiate product in the marketplace. Generally they set prices equal to or lower than competitor’s prices.
A policy of emphasising aspects other than price, such as, quality, service, or promotion, to sell products is known as non-price competition. This strategy is useful in building brand loyality. A name, sign, symbol, or design a company uses to distinguish its product from others is called a brand. Firms usually want exclusive use of their brands and take steps to prevent others from using them. A brand registered with the patent and trademark office is called a trademark. A trademark, legally protected, can be used only by its owner.

QUESTIONS FOR COMPREHENSION

1. WHAT IS A PRODUCT?
2. WHY DO PEOPLE BUY A PRODUCT?
3. WHAT DO PRODUCTS CONSIST OF?
4. WHAT IS A CONSUMER PRODUCT?
5. WHAT ARE A CONVENIENCE PRODUCTS?
6. WHAT IS A SHOPPING PRODUCT?
7. WHAT DO SHOPPING PRODUCTS INCLUDES?
8. WHAT IS A PRODUCT LINE?
9. WHAT A SPECIALITY PRODUCTS?
10. WHAT IS PRODUCT MIX?
11. WHAT IS A PRICE?
12. WHAT IS PRICE COMPETITION?
13. WHAT IS NON-PRICE COMPETITION
14. WHAT IS A BRAND?
15. WHAT IS TRADEMARK?